REGIONAL COOPERATION ON WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TO ACHIEVE WATER SECURITY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA REGION

A. BACKGROUND

Water is a prerequisite for life. Water underpins almost all human activities from food production to manufacturing, energy production and transport. It has been well known for millennia that human survival and ecosystem conservation depend on the reliable availability of adequate water of appropriate quality . Water is used for agriculture, industry, domestic and recreational purposes.Water is finite and vulnerable from the threat of population growth, scarcity, pollution, mismanagement and climate variability. Currently more than 1 billion people do not have access to clean drinking water. It is expected that by 2015, three billion people will live in water-stressed countries .

Climate change will affect the water cycle, seal level and rainfall variability, and thus crop production and the frequency and scale of floods and droughts .

Water also destroys. Many countries regularly suffer droughts, floods, hurricanes and other disaster that destroy lives, drain economies and hinder growth. Water is crucial for food security and human well-beings and it has been the subject of increasing international concern and debate. UN system have sponsored several international conferences on water such as International Conference on Water and Environment in 1992, Millenium Summit in 2000, the World Summit on Sustainable development in 2002, etc. The Year 2003 was declared the International year of Freshwater by the UN General Assembly in an effort to raise awareness and initiate action on managing and protecting global freshwater resources.

Countries in Southeast Asia region, with relatively high rate of population growth, urbanization and industrialization face a situation of increasing demand on finite and already stressed water resources. Without an integrated approach to management of water supply and demand, including the difficult issue of allocation planning associated with national socio-economic goals, physical water stressed in increasingly being accompanied by societal conflicts.


B. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

Population growth in Southeast Asia is straining the ecological system that provides water fro drinking, agriculture and other life-sustaining services in the region. As the per capita use increases due to changes in lifestyle and as population increases as well, the proportion of water for human use is increasing. This, coupled with spatial and temporal variations in water availability, means that the water to produce food for human consumption, industrial processes and all the other uses is becoming scarce; therefore, countries in any region make efforts to strengthen cooperation on water. Some initiatives are launched to avoid crises and foster co-operation among states and stakeholders.


C. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

Water access is no longer simply a global health and development issue; it is a mortal and long-term threat that is increasingly becoming a national security issue. In the developing world, 5,000 children die every day from easily preventable water-related illnesses such as cholera, typhoid, and malaria, diseases that have been all but eradicated in wealthier nations. Access to clean water and adequate sanitation is a cornerstone for sustainable development around the world. Improving access to safe water will not only reduce mortality from waterborne illness, but will help provide long-term stability in countries that suffer from population pressures due large population growth from high total fertility rates.

The world must work toward ‘water security’ as an overarching goal as endorsed by the World Water Commission. Water security means that every person has access to enough safe water at affordable cost to lead a clean, healthy and productive life, while ensuring that the natural environment is protected and enhanced .

Water security is global issue including in the Southeast Asia region. Much of the water in the region is polluted, the region inland water bodies is also affected by the presence of pathogenic agents. Major river carry enhanced nutrient and pollutant as a result of change in land use, industrialization and urbanization .

Water need to be considered at local, national and regional level. Regional cooperation is expected to have a crucial role to achieve water security. The paper on “Regional Cooperation on Water Resource Management to Achieve Water Security in Southeast Asia Region” will be aimed to discus the following research question:

a. How does the regional mechanism on water management prevail in the region work in achieving the security of water supply in the region?
b. What are the regional efforts in the ASEAN framework to strengthen water resource management to achieve the security of water supply in the region?


D. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research is qualitative research and it uses secondary data analysis. The paper will give description on how regional cooperation strengthens the effort to achieve the security of water supply as well as the assessment on the regional mechanism on water management prevail in the region.


E. SIGNIFICANCE


The paper hopefully will be functional in improving the insights of the Indonesia diplomat on matter related to water, the cooperative mechanism to secure the water access as well as the regional cooperation prevail to increase the sustainability of water in the region. It is expected also that the findings in this paper will deepen the knowledge on how to improve the regional cooperation especially in ASEAN in furthering out the water related issues in the region.


THE CONCEPT OF SECURITY, WATER SECURITY,
WATER MANAGEMENT AND REGIONAL COOPERATION

A. REDEFINING THE CONCEPT OF SECURITY

The concept of security is elusive and open to many different interpretations, but one of its most noticeable characteristics in international relations theory is identification with national security. One of the broadest and the most abstract definitions is summed up succinctly by Arnold Wolfers: “…security, in our objective sense, measures the absence of threats to acquired values, in a subjective sense, the absence of fear that such values will be attacked ”

Since international relations theory has been built upon the premise of relationships among nations, the term generally connotes “national security.” Wolfers also pointed out the ambiguity of the notion of national security. He warns us about the use of such notions as “national security” and “national interest,” observing that, “while appearing to offer guidance and a basis for broad consensus, they may be permitting everyone to label whatever policy he favors with an attractive and possibly deceptive name”

Another common meaning of security in international relations theory is in the narrow sense of military strategy dominated by the realist perspective. As a subfield of strategic studies, security studies have been closely linked with the development of military technology such as defensive and offensive weapon systems. Similarly, strategic studies have been associated with military strategy, theory of deterrence, and arms control. In this context, security studies in international relations theory are closely related to military security. Of course, at the opposite end of the ideological spectrum, idealists have presented different world views regarding security, but these are commonly referred to as “peace studies” rather than realism-oriented “security studies” because the latter were “far too war-prone”.

Buzan explains that the security of human collectivities is affected by factors in five major areas: military, political, economic, societal, and environmental . Military security concerns the two-level interplay of the armed offensive and defensive capabilities of a state, and a state’s perceptions of other states’ intentions. Political security pertains to the organizational stability of states, their systems of government, and the ideologies that give them legitimacy. Economic security involves access to the resources, finances, and markets necessary to sustain acceptable levels of social welfare and state economic power. Societal security entails the sustainability of traditional patterns of language, culture, religious and national identity, and customs. Environmental security, finally, concerns the maintenance of local environments and the planetary biosphere as the essential support systems upon which all other human enterprises depend. While these five factors are closely linked to each other, each “defines a focal point within the overall security problematique, and a way of ordering priorities” (Buzan: 18-19). In this way, Buzan attempted to broaden the scope and domain of the concept of security in order to include non-military concerns in the lexicon of security.


B. ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY, RESOURCE-BASED CONFLICT AND WATER


There exists a clear conceptual link between expanding the concept of security to include environmental security and the inclusion of resource-based conflict as one of the main threats to the survival of humankind.

It is this conception that underpinned the report of the Independent Commission on International Development Issues (1980): "Our survival depends not only on military balance but on global co-operation to ensure a sustainable biological environment and sustainable prosperity based on equitably shared resources." The June 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro also made a significant contribution towards creating an awareness of the need for a re-conceptualisation of security.

In the 1970s and 1980s, resource-based security problems revolved primarily around three issues, namely Middle Eastern oil, Soviet natural gas and Southern African strategic minerals. The 1990s were ushered in by a resource-based Gulf War (1990-91) an unequivocal demonstration of the US and the West's commitment to safeguard access to oil.

Further, Rogers predicts that four resources will be sources of possible future conflict: energy oil reserves in the Middle East; strategic minerals for instance in Central and Southern Africa, the High Andes, Amazonia and Eastern Asia; food reserves US and European Union grain surpluses; and water resources .


C. WATER SECURITY


Water resources are receiving global attention, as human population growth and development wreak significant changes to the earth system. Water security is a key element of human security. But water is threatened in many places around the world from growing demand, scarcity, mismanagement and increasing climate variability. Yet society's new and growing awareness of water insecurity is spurring many opportunities for change and development, for increasing cooperation among various stakeholders at the local, national, regional and international level, and for highlighting water as a key strategic area for investment .

The 2003 Commission on Human Security defines human security as a demand-driven process that focuses on individuals and communities and seeks to promote a comprehensive view of how to improve overall well-being . In the same way, water security emphasizes the health and wellbeing of individuals and of communities. It places the focus on the protection of the most vulnerable groups in society, which are often women and children. Women usually take on the responsibility of providing water for their families, and thus it is vital for more women to be involved and included in decision-making processes regarding water. Where water is degraded and dangerous to health, where it is becoming ever more inaccessible, or where it is priced out of reach, poor people's suffering increases. Rising temperatures related to climate change add to the hardship. The poor need protection, especially in times of economic turmoil, and concern for the well-being of the vulnerable is an important indicator of equity and social justice in society. The poor need to have their voices heard. A comprehensive view of water security involves taking into account the water needs of all the sectors that consume or harness water, including industry, agriculture, and energy, and domestic water use in both urban and rural settings.

Ensuring water security both now and in the future must also entail taking an in-depth look at the environmental sustainability of systems and solutions, through preserving and maintaining aquatic ecosystems. Building resilience within communities and within ecosystems both to the destructive forces of water and to water scarcity is needed to face climate change. Water security is a technical issue, an environmental issue, and primarily a social issue involving different concerned stakeholders.

Water security can provide a starting point for innovative discussions and more integrated and inclusive decision-making. Multi stake holder processes are critical elements in tackling water problems and ensuring water security, precisely because more than technical options are involved. Many of the people who need to be present in the vital debate over water security are not primarily water experts but represent diverse interests ranging from geopolitical, business, and community considerations. Participation, public involvement and transparency are essential for the ongoing success of such processes and negotiations.


D. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT


Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related sources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystem . Integrated management goes beyond the sectoral approach which means that all the different uses of water resources are considered together.

Sectoral approach to water resource management have dominated in the past and still prevailing. This lead to fragmented and uncoordinated development and management of the resources. Moreover, water management is usually in the hands of top down institutions, the legitimacy and effectiveness of which have increasingly been questioned. Thus, increased competition for the finite resource is aggravated by inefficient governance. IWRM brings coordination and collaboration among the individual sectors, plus fostering a stakeholder participation, transparency and cost effective local management.



E. REGIONAL COOPERATION ON WATER RESOURCE


The cooperation of countries in the region on water management is driven by certain interest and reason. To explain why countries do so, can be viewed from the neo realist. Cooperation in water resource emerged as self interest actors, coexisting in an anarchic environment, reach autonomous and independent decision that lead to mutually desirable cooperative outcome. Utilizing the river and ameliorating scarcity often require joint actions especially when unilateral efforts are not deemed efficient. Such a requisite constitutes the riparian’s mutual interest in cooperation and coordination. The ability of state to attain mutually satisfying outcome, thus makes cooperation more common. Countries are able to realize joints gains and pursue cooperation arrangement when it is in their national interest to do so .

ACHIEVING WATER SECURITY
THROUGH REGIONAL COOPERATION ON WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT : A CASE STUDY IN THE SOUTHEAST ASIA REGION

A. The State of Water Security in Southeast Asia


In Asia, the availability of water per capita declined by 40%-60% between 1955 and 1990 . Asia has the lowest per capita availability of freshwater in the world, with parts of Southeast Asia already well above the threshold of ‘high-water stress’ condition, which occur when the ratio of use to availability exceeds 40%. Currently it is estimated that the Asian industry swallows some 10% of the region freshwater . As a result, acute water shortage will limit future economic growth and industrial expansion .

Southeast Asia is one of water-rich regions of the world. It is also one of the most populated regions, with about 522 million in 2002 and annual population growth of 2.1%. Nearly 33% of the total population lives in urban areas, and urban population is further expected to increase by about 3% annually.

Southeast Asia has an average annual water resource of about 6,476 km 3 (1.45 m 3 per square meter of land area), about 15% of the world total, with Indonesia having by far the biggest amount (ASEAN, 2001). More than 90% of total freshwater withdrawals in the region go to agriculture, while the rest go to household and industrial uses. This proportion of water for agricultural uses is much higher than the global average of 70%. The volume of water actually available per person to use in 2000 was 4,900 m 3 , which is considerably lower than the potential resource of 12,900 m 3 , but is considerably higher than most of the Asia/Pacific Region (ASEAN, 2001).

The renewable suppy is an important constraint to the sustainable use of water within the region because it is limited by the dynamics of the hydrological cycle. Apart from human use, water is also needed to sustain ecosystems. Pumping water from underground aquifers faster than they can be recharged or the diversion of water from wetlands or rivers to the point where freshwater ecosystem fail, are clearly unsustainable practices. Excessive withdrawals are also causing intrusions of seawater into deltas and coastal aquifers. In Vietnam, the uncontrolled flow of sewage and fertilizer runoff is hastening eutrophication in lakes and various coastal seas. In Thailand, the rapid lowering of the water table due to excessive extraction of groundwater has lead to the contamination of the shallow aquifers in Bangkok by seawater. The over withdrawal of groundwater reserves has caused land subsidence in cities such as Bangkok and Jakarta.

Several additional factors contribute to the potential for regional water shortage by limiting the availability supply. Among the most serious is the pollution of water stemming from a wide variety of industrial, municipal and agricultural sources. Durig the past 30 years, water has contributed considerably to the Asian Green revolution in general (1968-11978) and to the rice production in particular. However, this has been achieved at a high price for the environment. A proportion of the chemicals applied as fertilizer and as pest and weed control pollutes rivers and lakes through runoff and groundwater through leaching.

For the Mekong River riparian countries of ASEAN (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thaliand, Vietnam), the water availability situation is quite complex. Four of these countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam) are signatories to the 1995 Agreement on Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin. Although the agreement provides for the members to agree on such things as the minimum acceptable monthly natural flows along the mainstream, it contains no specific provision for volumetric water sharing. Instead, it relies on the principle of international water law known as ‘reasonable and equitable utilization” and specifies a range of agreed cooperative actions such as data exchange ad notification and prior consultation concerning various water uses. The net result of all this dynamic approach to Mekong river water sharing is that it is not possible to state with certainty the annual volume of water available to these countries.

The special cases of Vietnam is worthy of mention. Whilst it is true that 22 % of sovereign or internal resources are currently used, Vietnam in addition to having part of its territory in the middle reaches of the Mekong Basin (and from whence Vietnam contributes some 11 % of the total Mekong flows) is also the most downstream nation and occupies the majority of the Mekong Delta where the Mekong river system enter the South China Sea. This means that subject to the environmental flow requirements, including the control of salinity intrusion, Vietnam in effect has access to all of the flows leaving southern border of Cambodia. When these flows are taken into account, current water demands in Vietnam fall to well below the 22% of internal supplies mentioned above. Whilst Myanmar is not a signatory to the Mekong Agreement, international water law applies, including the principle of reasonable and equitable utilization and thus Myanmar also has access to an undefined portion of the flow of the Mekong river, in addition to its own internal water resource.

All ASEAN Member Countries experience wet and dry seasons typical of the region, localized water stress in the dry season is widespread. Much of the stress can be attributed to agricultural extractions (irrigation) which commonly represent 70 – 90 % of total demand. However, many urban areas including major cities in the region are subject to increasing water stress in varying degrees`, sometimes severe.

According to International Water Management Institute, of the 10 ASEAN Member countries, only Singapore, constrained by its small size and limited catchment area, lies in the group of water scarce countries whose estimated water withdrawal exceeds 50 % and who have a high growth of demand. Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Myanmar lie in a group of countries with adequate water resources, but projected rates of increase in withdrawal of 100 % or more. The Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand also have adequate water and are grouped with countries whose expected water withdrawal will increase between 25-99 % for the Philippines and Vietnam and less than 25 % for Thailand. Brunei has adequate water, but rates of increase of extraction lie in the 25-99% range whilst Lao PDR utilizes about 2 % of its currently available water. The detail of the water availability and demand for ASEAN Countries can be seen in the table 1-3 in the Annex of this paper.

Averaged across ASEAN as a whole, increases in water extraction are expected to increase by about one-third over the next 20 years. Except Singapore, the water resource base in ASEAN Member Countries is sufficient to enable this to occur without major environmental impact, the cost associated with infrastructure development will be considerable.

Much of the drinking water in Southeast Asia is polluted because lack of wastewater disposal, adequate sanitation and proper management or sewage. As a consequence, the problem of pathogenic pollution is widely spread. Pathogen generally come from domestic sewage discharge untreated into watercourse. Of the lakes in Southeast Asia, 54% are suffering from eutrophication problems . The region inland water bodies are also affected by the presence of pathogenic agents. Many rivers carry enhanced nutrient and pollutant loads as a result of changes in land use, industrialization and urbanization. Discharge of mine tailings and development of industrial areas with direct discharge pollutants into neighboring river systems have resulted in hot spot of heavy metal pollution.

Water supply difficulties of the tropical wet/dry season cycle are exacerbated in many ASEAN Member Countries by the short, steep nature of many rivers which results in characteristic short, sharp hydrograph. Dry season water supply difficulties in such situation are typically accompanied by wet season flooding problems. Consequence of watershed deforestation, including resultant bed-load changes and siltation which alter river channel capacities and degrades water quality, all add to the problems of surface water supply.

Groundwater resources availability is typically in the range of 10-20% of the magnitude of internal surface water resources. Unfortunate, in a global familiar way, when cities cannot access sufficient surface water or when reticulation coverage is limited and reliability is poor, consumers turn to groundwater resource (legally or illegally) and overdraft are common around major ASEAN cities. Ground water resource management is sometimes not as well developed as surface water management and progress is sometimes hindered by the fact that it may be managed by a mining agency rather than water resource agency. This tend to hide the reality that water, whether in rivers or aquifers, is all part of a unitary water cycle and a “one resource’ policy is not usual in ASEAN Member countries in such circumstances. Achieving reduction of groundwater extraction to match sustainable yields levels remains a common challenge.

Population growth rates in some ASEAN Member Countries are relatively high, urbanization an industrialization are accelerating and it is common for national food security policies to have an emphasis on irrigate food production. These factors all contribute to a situation of increasing demand on finite and already stressed water resources. In addition, the realization of the benefits of maintaining ecological health of aquatic system is leading to demands for environmental flows – sometimes merely as dilution flows for water quality purposes, but increasingly for ecosystem maintenance of both riverine and estuarine system. Without integrate approach to management of water supply an demand, including the difficult issue of allocation planning associated with national socio-economic goals, physical water stress is increasingly being accompanied by societal conflicts. Furthermore, even if water us available for increasing irrigation, it is also important that land suitable for irrigation is available. This may encroach on rainfed agriculture and other lan uses an so-trade off to assess net benefits from increasing irrigation are also requires.


B. RESPONSES TO THE SUPPLY-DEMAND IMBALANCE CHALLENGES FOR ASEAN


Individual country response to inadequate supplies to meet local demands range from a traditional ‘engineering’ response (lets build mode dams and reservoirs) which merely spreads the problems over a wider geographical areas, to highly sophisticated demand management techniques and recycling technology. Best practices response consists of a well-thought out mix of all available methodologies – physical, technical, and economic (incentives and market-based methodologies). ASEAN contains some world’s best practices in supply-demand management and this represents an excellent opportunity for other ASEAN Member Countries to learn and to benefit from not repeating the mistakes of the past.

Other responses within ASEAN include reformed institutional mechanism such as embracing integrated water resource management (IWRM) principles and experimenting with new institutional arrangement such as river basin organization (RBO). However none of these worthy initiatives will succeed unless they are designed to address specific actual problems. The IWRM and RBO are being prematurely and unsuccessfully applied as amorphous concept, while failing to address real fundamental underlying problems, such as poor data, inadequate human resources, lack of modern water allocation and water sharing system



THE REGIONAL COOPERATION ON WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
A. ASSESSMENT OF THE PREVAILING REGIONAL MECHANISM ON WATER MANAGEMENT


The scarcity of water may act as a factor creating conflict as well as cooperation between the sides. However, histories have shown that the interdependence between the parties and the necessity to preserved shared water resources encourage the parties from a zero sum game to a win-win situation.

In Southeast Asia, there is regional cooperation on water resource management, namely, Mekong River Commission (MRC). The Mekong River Commission constitutes a coordinating mechanism between Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam with the aim to develop large scale water resource. This objective was never realized. Now it includes hydropower, irrigation, flood control, collection and distribution of hydrological data. The Mekong River Commission also serves as focal point for donor organization and countries. The MRC member countries agrees to cooperate in all fields of sustainable development, utilization, management and conservation of water and related sources of the Mekong River Basin, such as navigation, flood control, fisheries, agriculture, hydropower and environmental protection.

MRC program and project is to promote, support, cooperate and coordinate in the development of the full potential of sustainable benefits to all riparian states and the prevention of wasteful use of Mekong river basin waters, with emphasis and preference on joint and/or basin-wide development project. The MRC member cooperate on the basis of sovereignty and territorial integrity in the utilization and protection of the Water resource of the Mekong River Basin

Unfortunately, the MRC does not perform as it wishes to be. The MRC cannot claim to have decisive impact on the members’ management of the basin’s natural resources. The member states are claimed to prioritize national interest above trans-basin cooperation. Although there are clear indications that the regime has matured since its inception in 1957, it has not evolved into a regulatory organization for the river basin and cannot be considered very effective if regarded as regime. The 1995 Agreement is not reflected in the Commission’s members’ respective laws and the regime has largely been driven by donor funding and non-riparian leadership in the Secretariat. Nonetheless, the Mekong River Secretariat has gathered substantial amounts of information and technical knowledge on the basin and its resource. It has; however, so far not been willing “to apply this knowledge more proactively to decision-making on appropriate river basin management and the development of a flow regime based on agreed regulations has been painstakingly slow and difficult. In other words, the impact of the mechanism is quite limited.

Some countries in the region have also implemented IWRM but not successful enough and even considered quite premature . The condition is caused by that after some 70 years of existence, There are no good examples as to how the concept of IWRM can be implemented and also under what conditions, so as to make water management more efficient, especially for large development project. There are indeed many successful examples of water management in the region, but these have not followed the IWRM model. Also, many important issues have not been considered when implementation of IWRM has been attempted.

The concept of river basin as basic unit for water management has not been easy to apply where the principle of IWRM and the sovereignty of states do not necessarily coincide. Countries members tend to prioritize their own national interests building commitment to ensure the mechanism work. Furthermore, with increasingly inter-basin water transfers, the earlier concept of management by a single river basin is becoming increasingly absolute and irrelevant. While conceptually the IWRM is attractive, its application in term of integration of various issues from within and outside the water sector has proved to be immensely difficult. The reality is that fragmentation and uncoordinated management predominate within the sector and between sector and that issues as basic as participation and decentralization are still in infancy, not mention the increasing urgency for information dissemination, awareness, education, capacity building and governance both within and outside the sector.

In addition, before any integration take place, the knowledge base of water resource still has to improve significantly in term of needs, uses and abuses by different users and sectors. Another constraint has been that in many cases water resource and environment management have often focused on infrastructure development. It seem to be there is a necessity to make modification on the presents IWRM suitable with the geography and the condition in the region.

Another arrangement is water pact between Indonesia and Singapore and Singapore with Malaysia. The Water agreement between Singapore and Malaysia was signed in 1961 and 1962 and are in force up to 2011 and 2061 respectively. The Tebrau and Scudai Water Agreement was signed in 1961, while the Johor River Water Agreement was signed in 1962. The 1961 agreement allows Singapore to draw up to 86 million gallons of water per day(mgd) from the Pontian and Gunung Pulai Reservoir as well as the Tebrau and Skudai Rivers, while the 1962 agreements allows up to 250 mgd of water to be drawn from the Johor River. The water issue is often seen as a “thorn in the flesh” in two countries relation. It has been alleged that water is used as political leverage by one party whenever other party is seen to have impinged on its interests and rights . The two parties are often in disagreement to set the water price.

Due to the stall in water negotiation with Malaysia, Singapore has attempted to strengthen its position by looking for alternative sources of water. Indonesia has presented itself a very viable option due to the proximity to Singapore. The idea of tapping water from Indonesia originated from the then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew in 1987. Subsequently, on 28 August 1990, Indonesia and Singapore signed agreement to facilitate cooperation on the sourcing, supply and distribution of water to Singapore . In 1991, the two countries signed Water Agreement in which Indonesia will supply 1000 gallons of water a day from the Province of Riau to Singapore for a hundred years.


C. EFFORT TO STRENGTHEN THE WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE REGION


All ASEAN member Countries are displaying an internationally familiar scenario of localized, sometimes severe stress, coupled with an increasing inability of traditional water sharing system to cope with growing demand, with new users and with competition between sectors and between individual users. The need for new approach to water allocation and sharing is clear. Most ASEAN countries today recognize their water resource as being in the public ownership with governments having the overall responsibility for management. In some countries the Constitution makes this explicitly clear. The national Government does not ‘own’ the water, the people do. What government has is the right to control the use, control and flow of water. It can grant or delegate these rights to individuals or corporations, who may use the water under conditions set by the government . A significant challenge for ASEAN is to improve water allocation and sharing so as to achieve equity, sustainability and economic efficiency. There is real opportunity for ASEAN Member countries to work together on development of principles and in the sharing of experience.

ASEAN Vision 2020 has outlined the commitment to develop cooperation on water. To create a stable, prosperous and highly competitive ASEAN Economic Region in which there is a free flow of goods, services and investment, a freer flow of capital, equitable economic development and reduces poverty and socio-economic disparities, ASEAN resolves to undertake, among others, establish interconnecting arrangement in the field of energy and utilities for electricity, natural gas, and water within ASEAN through the ASEAN Power Grid and a Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline and Water Pipeline and promote cooperation in energy efficiency and conservation as well as the development of new and renewable energy sources.

The vision for water resource in ASEAN was initially defined in the ASEAN Long Term Strategic Plan for Water Resource Management endorsed by ASEAN environmental ministers in 2003. The Strategic lan was initiated by the ASEAN Working Group on Water Resource Management (AWGWRM). The vision for water in Southeast Asia by 2025 is the attainment of sustainability of water resources to ensure sufficient water quantity of acceptable quality to meet the needs of the people of Southeast Asia in terms of health, food security, economy and environment. The vision stipulates concern for four aspect of water management: access to safe, adequate and affordable water supply, hygiene and sanitation; provision of sufficient water that will ensure food security in the region; provision of sufficient water to spur and sustain the economies of the region; and protection of the water environment to preserve flow regime, biodiversity and cultural heritage as well as the mitigation of water-related hazards.

The 2nd meeting of AWGWRM which was held on 21-22 November 2003 in Chiang Mai, Thailand noted the Declaration of the 1st Southeast Asia Water Forum. The Forum recognizes the strength of the ASEAN framework as a driver for development, and recommends specific actions to be taken to further improve and advance better practices for water management in the region. The 2nd meeting of AWGWRM further noted the Chiang Mai Ministerial Declaration on Managing Water Resources in Southeast Asia which was adopted at the First Ministerial Declaration on Managing Water Resource in Southeast Asia. The Forum recognize the need to integrate the management of water sectors and issues including water supply, sanitation, floods and droughts, degradation of environment, food security, livelihoods of the poor and that increasing variability due to human intervention and changes in climate. There are some principles that need to be espoused by ASEAN with respect to integrated water resource planning and management. They are sustainable development, effective governance of water resource. The strategic plan proposes activities to water resource management that are priorities for ASEAN, among others:

a. develop a set of guide line for Integrated Water Resource Management at country level,
b. enhance information and compile good practices and policies/sharing information;
c. develop appropriate water quality monitoring standards, water, water monitoring strategies;
d. develop appropriate reporting system;
e. develop best-practices data storage and retrieval system.

The strategies and actions to improve governance and capacity building includes efforts to conduct exchange program, provide awareness creation, increase community participation in water resource management decision making, increase the role of women to participate, develop strategies to educate communities.

From the efforts, it is expected the improved understanding and management of water demand and thus enhances capacity to deliver environmental flows, a potential consistent set of ASEAN country IWRM strategies as a basis for future water resource planning in the future, a uniform classification system and standard of monitoring, long-term data base for planning and strategic management of river across ASEAN, more rapid and efficient response to water stress issue through the adaptation of best-management practices, greater awareness of common ASEAN integrated water management issue.

The ASEAN Socio Cultural Blueprint on promoting the Sustainability of Freshwater Resource has also draw up actions to be taken to promote the sustainability of water resource to ensure equitable accessibility and sufficient water quantity for people of ASEAN, which include: continue the implementation of the ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resource Management, endeavor to reduce by half the number of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2010, manage water resource efficiently and effectively in order to provide adequate and affordable water services by 2015, promote the implementation of integrated river basin management by 2015, promote public awareness and partnership to enhance integrated water resource management and promote regional cooperation on water conservation measures and program as well as scientific and technological innovations in water quality improvement and supply.


CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
A. CONCLUSION

There is no single way forward for countries in Southeast Asia to ensure their water security in the future. Because of differing climatic, physical, physical, social, economic, environmental and institutional conditions, because countries and even parts of countries are at different stages of development, there are simply no universal solutions. In addition, because the national, regional, and global conditions that affect water are changing rapidly, there is also a time dimension to the solutions. What may have been a viable solution a decade ago may not be so a decade from now. This means that water policies need to be updated periodically so that they reflect the changing requirements.

On the basis of current assessment of water resources, expected water demands, available technology and experience, countries in Southeast Asia shall be able to avoid to experience the physical scarcity of water. There is now enough knowledge, technology and expertise available to solve all existing problems. If some of the countries in the region face a water crisis in the future, it will now because of physical scarcity of water but because of inadequate or inappropriate water governance, including management practices, institutional arrangements, sociopolitical conditions.

Major and fundamental changes in water governance practices are needed in nearly all Southeast Asian countries. There is success story in the region of very significance improvement in the water governance. Therefore countries in the region shall develop mechanism to share best practices on water management and capacity building with the aim to secure water for the future.


B. RECOMMENDATION


Waster security is the concern of all. To achieve it need a commitment of all stakeholders including governments, private sector and communities as a whole. Governments have a very crucial role to design water management policy tailored to achieve the water security. In doing so, they shall involve the participation of people. What is needed is the political will and commitment.

In relation to regional cooperation on water management in ASEAN, governments in the region shall be committed to realize the ASEAN Strategic Plan of Action on water resource management by allocating enough will and resource. Several Member Countries have best practices that can be shared with all to build capacity to deal with water security challenges in the region.

The issue of water security will become more and more crucial in the future in the region and in the world due to the decreasing water resource amidst the increasing demand; therefore, Indonesia diplomats need to equip themselves with the knowledge on the issues in order to be able to play role in securing the water resource.

References

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Responsibility to Protect (RtoP): The Future Implementation in the Southeast Asia Region

Responsibility to Protect (RtoP): The Future Implementation
in the Southeast Asia Region
(This article has been published in "Jurnal Departemen Luar Negeri" edisi tahun 2009)

Responsibility to Protect (RtoP hereafter) is the responsibility of state to protect its population from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity . The conceptual foundation of RtoP can be traced from the work done by Francis Deng and his colleagues in 1990s and later to the 2001 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty . In his work, Deng asserts that sovereignty can no longer be seen as a protection against interference, but as a charge of responsibility where the state is accountable to both domestic and external constituencies. Responsibility can be exercised by states over their population and by other states in assistance to their fellow sovereigns.

Further, heads of state and government endorsed the concept and principle of RtoP in the World Summit 2005 as stipulated in the paragraph 138 and 139 of the World Summit Outcome document which say as follows :

“138. Each individual State has the responsibility to protect its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. This responsibility entails the prevention of such crimes, including their incitement, through appropriate and necessary means. We accept that responsibility and will act in accordance with it. The international community should, as appropriate, encourage and help States to exercise this responsibility and support the United Nations in establishing an early warning capability.

139. The international community, through the United Nations, also has the responsibility to use appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful means, in accordance with Chapters VI and VIII of the Charter, to help to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. In this context, we are prepared to take collective action, in a timely and decisive manner, through the Security Council, in accordance with the Charter, including Chapter VII, on a case-by-case basis and in cooperation with relevant regional organizations as appropriate, should peaceful means be inadequate and national authorities are manifestly failing to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. We stress the need for the General Assembly to continue consideration of the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity and its implications, bearing in mind the principles of the Charter and international law. We also intend to commit ourselves, as necessary and appropriate, to helping States build capacity to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity and to assisting those which are under stress before crises and conflicts break out”.

According to the UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, RtoP rests on three pillar strategy :

1) The responsibility of each state to protect its own population from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity, and from their incitement;

2) The commitment of the international community to assist states in meeting their obligations;

3) The responsibility of United Nations Member States to respond in a timely and decisive manner when a state is manifestly failing to provide such protection.

The strategy stresses the value of prevention and, when it fails, of early and flexible response tailored to the specific circumstances of each case. There is no set sequence to be followed from one pillar to another, nor is it assumed that one is more important than another. The structure of the responsibility to protect relies on the equal size, strength and viability of each of its supporting pillars. The means to implement Rtop varies ranging from diplomatic, humanitarian and other peaceful means (such as capacity building), pressure, sanction and finally military intervention under the Chapter VII of the UN.

The provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the Summit Outcome are also firmly anchored in well-established principles of international law. Under conventional and customary international law, states have the obligations to prevent and punish genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The actions under paragraphs 138 and 139 of the Summit Outcome are to be undertaken only in conformity with the provisions, purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. In that regard, the responsibility to protect does not alter, indeed reinforce, the legal obligations of states to refrain from the use of force except in conformity with the Charter.

The 2005 World Summit Outcome is the point of departure for understanding and implementation of RtoP. R2P constitutes a significant normative shift that focuses on the victim of atrocities, in which states, singularly, and the international community, collectively, are responsible for developing national and international measures to protect populations from grave and unconscionable harms. The basic premise of R2P is that each state bears the responsibility to protect its citizenry from mass atrocities (genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes and crimes against humanity). In the case that a state is either manifestly unable or unwilling to discharge its responsibility to safeguard its population, the responsibility to protect beleaguered populations lies with the international community.

Though RtoP has become the political commitment of all heads of state and government after the World Summit in 2005, the implementation of its concept produced mixed reaction from different members of the UN. The developing countries, as reflected by the position of the Non-Aligned Movement and G-77 fear that collective prevention activity will be manipulated by one and more powerful states to intervene in other countries’ domestic affairs in the direction favorable to their interest in the name of humanitarian intervention. Meanwhile, the OECD countries fear that any systematic commitment to collective prevention activities will trigger a very large, uncontrollable financial burden. Meanwhile, the RtoP concept and principle get early acceptance from African countries as stipulated in the Constitutive Acts of the African Union in its article 4 (h) which authorize intervention in grave circumstances such as genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity .

It seems that the mixed reaction to the RtoP was not caused by the doubt over its principle but rather on the lack of clarity upon its possible implementation. Countries still need time to discuss further in the UN forum to find agreement on the modalities of implementation of the RtoP concept in such a way that it can protect the civilian from the mass atrocities and while at the same time it will not be misused as a pretext to undermine the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of states especially the weaker ones.

A form of RtoP practice has taken place in the 15-20 places around the world. The involvement in peacekeeping missions with a civilian protection component is involvement in RtoP. Beyond peacekeeping, the international community is presently employing q wide range of diplomatic and humanitarian measures to address violent conflict which can be accounted to upholding the RtoP principle. One of the example is the RtoP is the international response to the situation in Kenya. The rapid response to the conflict in Kenya demonstrates the international consensus that an escalating crisis is not wholly the internal concern of the state. The UN engaged in at the highest political levels, with the Security Council condemning the violence and the Secretary General offering assistance and mediation in conjunction and consultation with concerned African leaders. The international community sought to respond early and effectively to bolster security and protect human rights and to assist Kenya in developing non-violent methods of managing the mounting tensions. Archbishop Desmond Tutu said that what had been seen in Kenya is action on a fundamental principle of responsibility to protect .

Promoting RtoP in the Southeast Asia region

RtoP and humanitarian intervention are fairly new concept in the Southeast Asia region. The novelty of the ideas and their corresponding principle are generally taken with some degree of wariness because they challenge traditional conception of sovereignty. National sovereignty and independence are principle that is still sacred in the region.

Most of the reaction to the possible intervention from the external actors could traced from the hard and bitter experience of most Southeast Asian countries in fighting the colonial power to gain their independence.However, all countries in the region accept the principle of RtoP or at least in their official statements. During the World Summit in 2005, no country expressed their objection to the RtoP principles .

Promoting RtoP in the Southeast Asia region is daunting task and very challenging and has to consider several factors, among others, the changing regional context of the Southeast Asia and the enabling in the region .

The current context of in the Southeast Asia region

As has been mentioned, there is still a strong sense of cautiousness in the region related to the term ‘intervention’. It is important to note that the region’s reservations about the R2P relate not to the principle of the RtoP, but to the possibility for the principle to be abused to justify expanded coercive interference or unilateral intervention not properly authorized by the UN Security Council. Even in the Security Council itself no one can guarantee that the matter will not be politicized by its members especially the permanent ones (P5).

Nevertheless, there are some part of societies in the region who support the principle and implementation of RtoP in Southeast Asia. For them, the application of the traditional notion of state sovereignty in the region should be redefined. This is because Southeast Asia has had its share of humanitarian crisis situations in Cambodia in mid-1970s, East Timor in the late 1990s, as well as in the recent cyclone Nargis in 2008. These cases, along with similar situations in other parts of the globe, have become compelling issues that need to be confronted by national leaders and non-state actors in the region.

In a more globalized world, states cannot anymore invoke absolute sovereignty even as security threats spill over beyond borders of countries. Globalization, notwithstanding its negative impacts, also means that states can no longer keep their people confined from the outside world. The region’s governments also take a broader view that populations are also insecure when they are unable to achieve the Millennium development Goal. As such, Southeast Asian governments are generally supportive of the concept of RtoP.

The region also undergoes progress in the level of political openness and democratic space. The transition from authoritarian to more democratic regimes in the Philippines and Indonesia since 1986 and 1998, respectively, has contributed to the growth of the democratic movements not only in these countries but also in less open countries in the region. Greater openness at the domestic level means more opportunities for communication and exchange of ideas among civil society groups not only within these countries but across the region as well.

The leaders in the region also are in view on the need for constructive engagement among countries in the region in the domestic affairs when it has beyond border effects. How the countries in the region to address the haze problem, situation of human rights in Myanmar and the conflict in the southern Thailand were among the examples that domestic interference in other countries in the region is not completely taboo anymore, although the non interference principle is still enshrined in the ASEAN Charter that has been ratified.

Given this, it is possible to deepen consensus on the R2P among the Southeast Asian. The key lies in demonstrating how a commitment to the R2P could strengthen sovereignty and assists states to accomplish their core goals, such as economic development and poverty alleviation

The prospects for advancing R2P principles and norms would also depend on the level of awareness of all stakeholders on the importance of RtoP. To a large extent, most of the stakeholders have artificial understanding on what R2P is about. What is really needed is the emergence of R2P champions and advocates, and the effort to build constituencies in Southeast Asia. To do this needs some enabling factors that include growing acceptability of human security in national and regional security discourses and the culture of norm building in ASEAN.

The enabling environment : Improved attention on the aspect of Human Security and Culture of Norm Building in ASEAN

Human security issues have become more prominent in national and regional security discourses in Southeast Asia. Since the launching of the Millennium Development Goals by the United Nations, countries in the region have become more aware of the need to focus more on people in the development process. The increased focus on the people and their security is also reflected in several ASEAN documents. The idea of building an ASEAN Community which composed of three pillars (security, economic, and socio-cultural communities) have given emphasis on the aspect of human security

The culture of norm building in ASEAN can be conducive for the promotion of R2P principles in the region. ASEAN already has a number of norms and values related to peace and conflict prevention that could be the starting point for R2P promotion. One of the pillar of ASEAN Community, the ASEAN Political Security Community or APSC, basically attempts to contribute to the building of a “just, democratic, and harmonious environment” in the region through the formulation of an ASEAN Charter, ASEAN Mutual Legal Assistance Agreement, as well as the study of a possible ASEAN extradition treaty. These norm building efforts could lead to increased institutionalization of ASEAN and, ultimately, to a more rule-based community of Southeast Asian nations. The formulation of an ASEAN Charter, for example, could incorporate norms related to human security and conflict prevention, while an ASEAN extradition treaty could potentially contribute to harmonization of national laws with respect to criminal acts, including crimes against humanity. It is in this area where the promotion of some of the R2P principles in Southeast Asia becomes even more important.

D. Conclusion

Though countries in the Southeast Asia region officially still stick on the traditional notion of state sovereignty, there is a degree of openness to the RtoP in Southeast Asia. The willingness of the Myanmar government to accept internal assistance to address the Cyclone Nargis problems albeith prior international pressure, constitutes acceptance to the RtoP principle. For Indonesia, RtoP concept has been implemented in the UU no. 39 Tahun 2009 on Human Rights and UU No. 26 Tahun 2000 on Human Rights Court Indonesia also has a plan to ratify the Rome State on International Criminal Court which in much in line with RtoP principle.

Regional consensus on the principle is possible but much work needs to be done on the way in which the principle is articulated and advanced to take better account of the region’s concerns and priorities. R2P should be applied in a manner consistent with the principle of non-interference. R2P should be carefully disassociated from any potential expansion of the international community’s scope for coercive interference in the domestic affairs of states beyond the UN Charter. The international engagement to implement the RtoP should be conducted on the basis of cooperation and the consents of states in the region and the promotion of RtoP should not be externally imposed.

The RtoP principle should be related more closely to the legitimate priorities of countries in the region especially in the field of development and capacity building. The RtoP engagement should proceed with due regard for the attitudes and preferences of the regional organization in the region (ASEAN) to devolve the ownership of the principle. In order to mobilize Southeast Asian support for the R2P, the priorities for RtoP implementation should be focused on the R2P’s first pillar by developing the domestic legal framework for state responsibility to protect its population and second pillars by the assistance from the international community in helping states in the region to build capacity to protect.

References

Report of the Secretary General ,”Implementing the Responsibility to Protect”, January 12, 2009, Document of General Assembly, Sixty-Third Session

Francis Deng, Sadikiel Kimara, Terrence Lyion, Donald Rothchild and William Zastman, “Sovereignty as Responsibility: Conflict Management in Africa”, Brooking Institute, Washigton DC (1996)
International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty: the Responsibility to Protect, Ottawa (2001)

Word Summit Outcome Document, UN Secretariat

Report of the Secretary General, 2009

“The Common African Position on the Proposed Reform of the United Nation: Ezulwini Consensus”, the 7th Extraordinary Session of the Executive Council of the African Union, March 2005

Desmond Tutu,” Taking the Responsibility to protect.”International Herald Tribune, 20 February 2008

“ Responsibility to Protect in the Asia Pacific Region”, Centre of the Responsibility to Protect in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 2006.

“Responsibility to Protect in the Asia Pacific Region”, Centre of the Responsibility to Protect in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 2006.

Politik Luar Negeri Dan Peningkatan Ketahanan Pangan dan Energi Nasional

Politik Luar Negeri Dan
Peningkatan Ketahanan Pangan dan Energi Nasional


Pendahuluan

Kenaikan harga bahan pangan beberapa waktu yang lalu terjadi seiring dengan meningkatnya harga minyak bumi. Kenaikan bahan pangan dan minyak tersebut telah telah memicu kekhawatiran yang luar biasa terhadap makin menurunnya kualitas hidup masyarakat secara umum karena makin rendahnya daya beli terhadap kebutuhan hidup utama yaitu pangan dan energi. Berbagai penyebab kenaikan tersebut antara lain 1) penurunan tingkat produksi bahan pangan karena menurunnya produktifitas, kegagalan panen karena perubahan iklim, alih guna lahan pertanian menjadi lahan industri, infrastruktur pemukiman dll, 2) Peningkatan konsumsi di beberapa belahan dunia yang pertumbuhan ekonominya pesat seperti China dan India, 3) Penurunan stock di pasaran internasional akibat menurunnya produksi dunia. Hal ini diperparah oleh kebijakan pemerintah produsen pangan utama yang membatasi ekspor berasnya guna menjaga harga ditingkat domestik dapat terjangkau.

Kenaikan harga pangan dunia telah membawa dampak politik, ekonomi dan sosial yang sangat mengkhawatirkan. Kenaikan tersebut telah menyebabkan bahan pangan menjadi komoditas yang semakin sulit terjangkau dan telah menambah jumlah penduduk yang mengalami kekurangan pangan dan gizi yang berakibat pada peningkatan angka kematian.

Bagi Indonesia, kenaikan harga pangan dan energi telah memberikan dampak yang sangat memberatkan terhadap tingkat hidup rakyat khususnya dari golongan ekonomi lemah. Kenaikan tersebut telah semakin menurunkan tingkat daya beli masyarakat ditengah-tengah tingkat pengangguran yang masih tinggi dan relatif konstannya tingkat upah yang masih relatif rendah. Akibatnya jumlah penduduk yang berada di bawah garis kemiskinan diperkirakan kembali meningkat menjadi sekitar 47 juta orang. Kenaikan harga minyak juga semakin menambah beban APBN yang harus menutup kebutuhan subsidi minyak yang meskipun telah dilakukan kenaikan harga sebesar 28,7 % namun semakin naiknya harga minyak sampai 130 dollar per barel membuat beban subsidi tetap semakin besar. Besarnya alokasi subsidi tersebut mempersempit ruang gerak pemerintah di bidang anggaran khususnya untuk alokasi bagi pembangunan infrastruktur, pelayanan kesehatan, pendidikan, pembangunan sosial dan lain-lain.

Ketahanan Pangan dan Energi

Ketahanan pangan merupakan terjaminnya akses fisik dan secara ekonomi terhadap pangan yang bergizi, aman dan mencukupi untuk semua orang dalam waktu yang berkesinambungan guna mencapai hidup yang sehat dan aktif tanpa resiko kehilangan akses tersebut. Ketahanan pangan sebenarnya tidak sepenuhnya ditentukan oleh ketersediaan pangan yang melimpah, tetapi dengan terpenuhinya pangan rumah tangga yang berarti kecukupan pangan yang merata, terjangkau baik dalam jumlah, mutu maupun keamanannya. Dalam hal itu, akses kecukupan pangan lebih menentukan ketahanan pangan daripada ketersediannya. Dengan demikian sistem ketahanan pangan dikatakan mantap apabila telah mampu memberikan jaminan bahwa semua kalangan masyarakat setiap saat pasti memperoleh makanan yang cukup sesuai dengan norma gizi untuk kehidupan yang sehat dan produktif.

Ketahanan pangan nasional selama ini diusahakan melalui kebijakan swasembada pangan dan stabilitas harga yang diindikasikan dengan adanya kemampuan menjamin harga dasar yang ditetapkan melalui pengadaan pangan dan operasi pasar. Namun sebenarnya saat ini yang terpenting dalam masalah ketahanan pangan adalah lebih dipusatkan pada akses masyarakat untuk memperoleh pangan dengan meningkatkan kegiatan masyarakat sehingga dapat meningkatkan pendapatan. UU No. 7 Tahun 1996 tentang Pangan mengamanatkan bahwa Pemerintah bersama masyarakat bertanggung jawab mewujudkan ketahanan pangan. Pemerintah menyelenggarakan pengaturan, pembinaan, pengedilan dan pengawasan terhadap ketersediaan pangan yang cukup, baik jumlah dan mutunya, aman, bergizi, beragam, merata dan terjangkau oleh daya beli masyarakat. Selanjutnya masyarakat berperan dalam menyelenggarakan produksi dan penyediaannya, perdagangan dan distribusi serta sebagai konsumen yang berhak memperoleh pangan yang aman dan bergizi. Pemerintah telah melakukan berbagai upaya untuk untuk meningkatkan ketahanan pangan. Pemerintah telah mengeluarkan kebijakan peningkatan produksi dan diversifikasi pangan, perluasan areal pertanian, perbaikan infrastruktur pertanian dll.

Sementara itu ketahanan energi merupakan jaminan keamanan pasokan energi yang mencakup keamanan transportasi serta stabilitas harga di pasaran. Kebijakan energi merupakan kebijakan yang bersifat multisektor yang tercermin dari UU No. 30 Tahun 2007 mengenai Energi. Dalam UU tersebut disebutkan bahwa kebijakan energi nasional adalah kebijakan pengelolaan energi berdasarkan prinsip keadilan. Berkelanjutan dan berwawasan lingkungan guna terciptanya kemandirian dan ketahanan energi nasional. Energi dikelola berdasarkan asas kemanfaatan, rasionalitas, efisiensi berkeadilan, peningkatan nilai tambah, berkelanjutan, kesejahteraan masyarakat, pelestarian fungsi lingkungan hidup, ketahanan nasional dan keterpaduan dengan mengutamakan kemampuan nasional. UU No. 30 Tahun 2007 juga antara lain menyebutkan berisikan target dan keharusan pemanfaatan energi baru dan terbarukan diantaranya melalui pengembangan bio energi. Di samping itu sebagai upaya diversifikasi sumber energi, pengembangan bio energi juga bertujuan untuk memperluas kesempatan kerja dan meningkatkan kemakmuran masyarakat.

Berbagai upaya yang dilakukan tersebut nampaknya belum memberikan hasil sebagaimana yang diharapkan. Terdapat beberapa kelemahan dalam kebijakan dan implementasi program pembangunan ketahanan pangan dan energi, yaitu antara lain ketimpangan kebijakan makro dan mikro ekonomi yang memberikan perhatian yang besar pada kepentingan non-pertanian, pembangunan pertanian yang bias perkotaan, lemahnya sinergi agribisnis dan ketahanan pangan, bias pembangunan pada beras dan lemahnya kelompok pendukung kebijakan dan tidak adanya sistem yang dapat menstabilkan harga dan melindungi kepentingan petani sebagai produsen yang rentan terhadap fluktuasi harga. Sementara itu kebijakan pemerintah untuk penjaminan ketersediaan pasokan energi dalam negeri, peningkatan produksi minyak mentah, diversifikasi sumber energi juga belum memenuhi harapan karena lemahnya daya dukung infrastruktur energi serta kurangnya dukungan semua pihak dalam kebijakan konversi energi dll. Tantangan yang dihadapi sektor energi akan semakin berat tidak hanya karena Indonesia sudah menjadi net importir minyak ditengah harga minyak dan tingkat konsumsi yang terus melambung, tetapi juga tantangan dan kebutuhan ke depan unutk memberikan layanan energi yang bersih semakin besar.

Kenaikan harga pangan dan energi baru-baru ini bukan saja memberikan tantangan yang berat namun sebenarnya membuka peluang bagi revitalisasi sektor pertanian dan energi Indonesia. Tantangan dan peluang yang muncul dari permasalahan pangan dan energi saat ini menginsyaratkan perlunya perubahan strategis dalam pembangunan pangan dan energi nasional. Selain itu, dampak kenaikan harga pangan dan energi tersebut dirasakan bukan saja di Indonesia namun hampir di semua negara khususnya oleh masyarakat yang berpenghasilan menengah ke bawah. Hal ini mensyaratkan perlunya pengembangan kerjasama internasional, mengingat hakekat permasalahan dan upaya penanganan bersifat lintas negara. Dalam kerangka itu Departemen luar Negeri sebagai instansi yang menjalankan fungsi sebagai koordinator hubungan luar negeri diharapkan memiliki peran yang sentral dalam upaya mencapai kepentingan nasional dalam peningkatan ketahanan pangan dan energi. Saat ini merupakan waktu yang tepat bagi Deplu untuk mengambil inisiatif ke depan secara lebih terencana dan konkrit menyusun strategi perjuangan diplomasi di bidang pangan dan energi sehingga dapat mengambil manfaat dan memainkan peran untuk mempengaruhi kebijakan pangan dan energi baik pada tingkat regional maupun global untuk mendukung ketahanan pangan dan energi nasional.

Perlindungan Hak Kekayaan Intelektual terkait dengan Pendayagunaan Sumber Daya Genetic, Pengetahuan Tradisional dan Ekspresi Budaya Tradisional

Perlindungan terhadap Hak kekayaan Intelektual terkait dengan Pendayagunaan Sumber Daya Genetic, Pengetahuan Tradisional dan Ekspresi Budaya Tradisional

Perlindungan terhadap pendayagunaan Sumber daya genetika Pengetahuan Tradisional dan Ekspresi Folklore (Genetic Resource, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (GRTKF) telah menjadi pembicaraan yang hangat dalam beberapa tahun terakhir ini. Perlunya perlindungan tersebut disebabkan karena negara-negara berkembang mulai menggugat manfaat hak kekayaan intelektual (HKI) bagi masyarakat di negara-negara berkembang paska diadakannya Perjanjian Perdagangan terkait HKI (TRIPs – Trade- related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights). Menurut kelompok negara berkembang, HKI dalam prakteknya ternyata hanya berpihak kepada kepentingan negara-negara maju namun kurang mengakomodir potensi-potensi yang ada di negara-negara berkembang dan terbelakang . Gugatan tersebut juga disebabkan oleh maraknya tindakan peneliti asing terutama dari negara-negara maju yang mengambil sumber daya genetika, pengetahuan tradisional dan ekspresi folklore dari masyarakat yang hidup di negara-negara berkembang, selanjutnya mendaftarkan GRTKF tersebut di negara-negara maju seperti AS dan Eropa dengan menggunakan rejim perlindungan HKI .

GRTKF merupakan bagian yang penting dari suatu warisan budaya yang dimiliki oleh suatu bangsa. Sebagian besar pengetahuan tradisional yang hidup di lingkungan masyarakat negara berkembang merupakan bagian integral dari ritual keagamaan dan budaya. Sejarah membuktikan bahwa perkembangan suatu bangsa tidak pernah terlepas dari perkembangan kebudayaan yang dimilikinya yang berasal dari budi dan daya masyarakat tersebut. Kebudayaan memiliki arti penting bagi kehidupan sosial karena didalamnya terkandung nilai-nilai, kepercayaan, tradisi dan sejarah masyarakat lokal. Kandungan nilai inilah yang memberikan pengaruh kuat terhadap keberadaan kelompok masyarakat yang memiliki budaya tersebut. Oleh karena itu, pemanfaatan sumber daya genetik, pengetahuan tradisional dan ekspresi budaya tradisional perlu sepengetahuan masyarakat yang memeliharanya .

Pengetahuan Tradisional adalah knowledge, innovation and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity . Merujuk pada pengertian itu pengetahuan tradisional (PT) dapat diartikan sebagai pengetahuan, inovasi dan kebiasaan-kebiasaan dari suatu komunitas lokal yang membentuk suatu tradisi. Dengan demikian pengertian PT untuk merujuk pada ciptaan ciptaan yang didasarkan pada pengetahuan, pertunjukan, invensi, penemuan ilmiah, desain, merek, nama dan simbol, informasi yang bersifat rahasia yang semuanya berbasis pada tradisi. Kategori ini termasuk ilmu pengetahuan di bidang pertanian, pengetahuan dibidang ilmu pengetahuan, pengetahuan teknis, pengetahuan ekologis, pengetahuan yang berhubungan dengan obat, pengetahuan yang berhubungan dengan keanekaragaman hayati, ekspresi budaya tradisional dalam bentuk musik, tarian, lagu, desain-desain kerajinan tangan, cerita, karya seni, simbol-simbol .

Pengertian sumber daya genetika (SDG) adalah genetic material of actual or potential value, sementara itu pengertian materi genetik adalah any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional unit of heredity . Dengan demikian sumber daya getika merupakan bahan dari mahluk hidup yang mengandung unit-unit fungsional pewarisan sifat yang mempunyai nilai yang nyata dan potensial. SDG merupakan bahan dasar yang mempunyai nilai yang nyata atau potensial ketika dikembangkan, sebagai contoh melalui industri farmasi atau bioteknologi. Sementara itu, hasil-hasil invensi dan inovasi di bidang farmasi dan bioteknologi merupakan suatu karya yang dapat dipatenkan yang memiliki nilai ekonomi yang tinggi.

Ekspresi budaya lokal tradisional dapat mencakup ekspresi verbal seperti berpantun dan berpuisi, ekpresi lain seperti pelantunan lagu, dan musik tradisional serta ekspresi gerakan seperti tari-tarian, upacara adat atau gerakan tubuh yang menyangkut magic religius Dalam tataran ekspresi bentuk nyata dari budaya lokal dapat berupa lukisan, pahatan patung, kerajinan kayu, kerajinan kayu, kerajinan aneka logam, seni batik, ukiran, bordiran, perhiasan dan bangunan arsitektural .

Perlindungan terhadap Genetic Resource, Traditional Knowledge and Expression of Folklore

Kebijakan pemanfaatan GRTKF dalam konteks Indonesia harus dilakukan secara hati-hati mengingat adanya perbedaan karakter dan sifat dari sumber daya genetika, pengetahuan tradisional dan folklor. Dari perspektif akses terhadap GRTKF, setidaknya ada 3 pilihan yang dipertimbangkan, yaitu pelarangan atau pembatasan akses, pengawasan penggunaan GRTKF melalui system insentif, dan kombinasi antara pelarangan akses dengan pengawasan terhadap penggunaan GRTKF.

Arti penting pembahasan kepemilikan GRTKF adalah untuk kepentingan akses terhadap GRTKF itu sendiri. Konsep kepemilikan dan hak kekayaan merupakan konsep barat yang tidak mudah diterapkan terhadap sistem tradisional dan masyarakat adat. Hal ini disebabkan GRTKF memiliki system yang bersifat komunal dan sulit dicari siapa pemiliknya. Meskipun CBD (Convension on Biodiversity) mengetahui adanya hak mutlak dari negara untuk mengontrol akses terhadap GRTKF, dalam prakteknya banyak pihak yang terlibat di dalam kepemilikan GRTKF tersebut.

Terkait dengan ekpresi budaya tradisional, terdapat kelemahan dalam pemahaman diantara masyarakat adat dan seniman tradisional mengenai fungsi pelestarian (preservation) dan fungsi perlindungan (protection) atas hak-hak komunal milik masyarakat lokal. Terkait pelestarian nila ekpresi budaya terdapat pemahaman bahwa semakin banyak nilai ekspresi budaya oleh pihak manapun maka akan semakin bermanfaat nilai pelestarian budaya itu sendiri. Namun demikian apabila terdapat nilai ekonomi dalam mengekspresikan budaya tersebut, maka dapat saja muncul tuntutan perlindungan terhadap siapa saja yang boleh mengekspresikan secara komersila dan siapa yang tidak boleh mengekspresikan. Dalam konteks warisan budaya, upaya pelestarian (presenrvation) ditujukan agar ekspresi budaya tidak punah, upaya penjagaan agar ekaspresi budaya tidak rusak atau hancur serta diadakannya perlindungan (protection) agar dalam promosi ekpresi budaya tidak diekspoitasi pihal lain tanpa ijin sehingga merugikan pemilik hak.

HKI Komunal memiliki keterkaitan erat dengan HKI personal. Ekspresi budaya dan pengetahuan tradisional sebagai bagian dari HKI Komunal berperan dalam membentuk spirit dan budaya masyarakat untuk berinovasi yang tentunya dapat dimanfaaatkan sebagai sumber kreatifitas dalam mengembangkan kekayaan intelektual personal sehingga bermanfaatkan untuk meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi yang bersumber pada budaya lokal. Penggunaan bahan yang berasal dari warisan budaya tradisional yang merupakan bagian dari kekayaan intelektual dapat dipakai sebagai sumber kreativitas kontemporer yang mampu meningkatkan inovasi di bidang kekayaan intelektual personal dan dapat dimanfaatan melalui wadah usaha kecil dan menengah atau pengembangan kewirausahaan atau untuk menunjang daya tarik pariwisata atau juga untuk menarik minat investor terkait dengan industri pariwisata. Pemasaran produk kreatif yang berakar dari budaya lokal dapat mendorong masyarakat untuk memperkuat identitas budayanya. Sistem kekayaan intelktual yang bersumber pada nilai budaya tradisional dapat mendorong masyarakat untuk mengkomersialkan kreasinya secara aman karena dapat mencegah persaingan yang tidak sehat.

Strategi untuk melindungi hasil karya yang bersumber dari budaya tradisional dapat dilakukan dengan pencatatan dan dokumentasi serta publikasi yang dilakukan dengan foto, film atau rekaman suara sebagai sumber bukti formal orosinalitas yang menjadi dasar kepemilikan warisan budaya. Hasil kumpulan pencatatan atau dokumentasi eskpresi warisan budaya dapat menunjukkan secara formal keberadaan suatu ekspresi warisan budaya sehingga tidak disalahgunakan oleh pihak lain yang kurang berhak. Pembuatan data base yang berisi pencatatan atau dokumentasi aneka ragam budaya yang dimiliki masyarakat setempat juga dapat dipakai untuk membangun perlindungan defensif yaitu database yang dibangun dapat digunakan untuk dokumen pembanding dalam menolak HKI pihak lain atas dasar orosinalitas atau kebaruan apabila pihak lain tersebut menggunakan sumber inovasi dari ekspresi budaya tradisional untuk didaftarkan sebagai salah satu bidang HKI personal.




Ketentuan Hukum Nasional dan Internasional terkait GRTKF

Selama ini sebenarnya telah ada upaya-upaya perlindungan baik pada tingkat nasional maupun internasional. Pada tingkat nasional Indonesia telah memiliki UU No. 5 tahun 1994 tentang pengesahan United Nations Convention on Biodiversity, UU No. 7 tahun 1994 tentang pengesahan WTO termasuk TRIPS Agreement, UU No. 19 tahun 2002 tentang Hak Cipta, pada pasal 10 memberikan perlindungan terhadap warisan budaya. Pemerintah juga sedang melakukan pembahasan mengenai RUU tentang GRTKF.

Pada tingkat internasional telah ada Berne Convention yang memberikan perlindungan internasional terhadap Expression of Folklore, Tunis Model Law on Copyrights for Developing Countries, model peraturan perlindungan expresion of folklore (EF) oleh WIPO dan UNESCO, Convention on Biodiversity, WIPO Performance and Phonogram Treaty, WIPO-UNESCO World Forum on Protection of Folklore dengan action plan mengenai perlunya standar internasional perlindungan hukum untuk EF dan keseimbangan antara komunitas lokal sebagai pengelola EF dan pengguna untuk tujuan komersial dll. Berbagai upaya nasional dan internasional tersebut nampaknya belum membuahkan hasil yang diharapkan . Tuntutan perlindungan terhadap bentuk-bentuk GRTKF tersebut semakin mengemuka dan bernuansa politis karena menyangkut pula tuntutan dari berbagai kelompok komunitas lokal. Hal ini disebabkan semakin meningkatnya kesadaran bahwa komersialisasi berbagai bentuk GRTKF tersebut seharusnya tidak mengabaikan kepentingan komunitas sebagai pemegang warisan budaya.

Pembahasan mengenai perlindungan GRTKF di dalam kerangka sistem hak kekayaan intelektual masih terus berlanjut saat ini. Masing-masing negara yang berkepentingan dalam perlindungan sumber daya genetika, pengetahuan tradisional, dalam hal ini wakil dari negara-negara berkembang dan terbelakang, terus menyuarakan agar sistem hukum hak kekayaan intelektual dapat menjangkau GRTKF. Meskipun pembahasan komprehensif terus dilakukan, tampaknya sifat GRTKF yang dipelihara turun temurun dan kebanyakan tidak dalam bentuk tertulis, telah menjadi penghambat terhadap dimasukkannya pengetahuan tradisional dalam sistem HKI yang menghendaki segala sesuatu dalam bentuk tertulis dan sistematis.

Selain itu, sebagai negara yang memiliki keanekaragaman budaya Indonesia juga perlu meratifikasi Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expression. Konvensi ini dinilai sangat strategis bagi negara berkembang karena menjadi salah satu sarana untuk dapat menahan derasnya laju globalisasi yang cenderung menciptakan homogenitas dalam kebudayaan dunia. Indonesia memiliki kepentingan yang besar terhadap Konvensi Keanekaragaman Budaya karena perlindungan keanekaragaman budaya tidak dapat dilakukan secara efektif dan efisien oleh negara-negara secara inidvidual, melainkan membutuhkan kerjasama internasional. Dengan meratifikasi konvensi tersebut, posisi Indonesia ditingkat nasional semakin kuat dalam perjuangan untuk melindungi kekayaaan intelektual atas pengetahuan Tradisional dan Ekspresi Budaya Tradisional melalui partisiapsi aktif pada Intergovernmental Committee on Intelectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore yang dibentuk oleh World Intelectual Property Organization (WIPO) pada tahun 2000.

Pada sisi lain, Indonesia memerlukan persiapan-persiapan untuk melaksanakan ketentuan-ketentuan Konvensi Keanekaragaman budaya terutama dalam mendorong perkembangan pertukaran dan perputaran secara bebas dari ide, ekspresi dan aktivitas budaya serta barang dan jasa, membuka akses atas ekspresi budaya bagi orang asing, melakukan tindakan-tindakan yang diperlukan dalam melindungi dan melestarikan ekspresi budaya yang berada dalamm kondisi terancam punah dan mendorong partisipasi masyarakat madani dalam mencapai tujuan konvensi ini.

Tantangan dan Arah Ke Depan Diplomasi Maritim Indonesia

Tantangan dan Arah ke Depan
Diplomasi Maritim Indonesia


Pada saat Indonesia merdeka pada tanggal 17 Agustus 19945, wilayah negara adalah tinggalan Pemerintah Hindia Belanda dan belum menjadi negara kepulauan. Menurut Territoriale Zee en Maritime Kringen Ordonantie 1939, batas laut teritorial Indonesia adalah 3 mil laut dari pantai. Dengan demikian maka perairan antar pulau pada waktu itu adalah wilayah internasional .

Pada tanggal 13 Desember 1957 pemerintah Indonesia melalui Deklarasi Perdana Menteri Djuanda mengklaim seluruh wilayah perairan antar pulau di Indonesia sebagai wilayah nasional. Deklarasi yang kemudian dikenal dengan Deklarasi Djuanda merupakan pernyataan jati diri sebagai negara kepulauan dimana laut menjadi penghubung antar pulau, bukan pemisah. Deklarasi tersebut kemudian dikukuhkan oleh Undang-Undang Nomor 4/PrP/1960, yang kemudian diganti dengan Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 1996 tentang Perairan Indonesia . Klaim ini bersamaan dengan upaya memperlebar batas laut teritorial menjadi 12 mil dari pantai, kemudian diperjuangkan Indonesia untuk mendapatkan pengakuan internasional di PBB. Kendati prinsip negara kepulauan mulanya mendapat tantangan dari negara-negara besar seperti Amerika Serikat, pada tahun 1982 lahirlah Konvensi Kedua PBB tentang Hukum Laut (2nd United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea- UNCLOS) yang mengakui konsep negara kepulauan sekaligus mengakui konsep Zona Ekonomi Eklusif (ZEE) yang telah diratifikasi Indonesia dalam Undang-Undang No. 17 Tahun 1985 tentang Pengesahan United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Konvensi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa Tentang Hukum Laut) .

Konsep negara kepulauan memberikan anugrah yang besar. Indonesia mendapat pengakuan dunia atas tambahan wilayah nasional sebesar kurang lebih 3 juta km2 wilayah perairan dari hanya sekitar kurang kebih 100.000 km2 warisan Hindia Belanda, ditambah dengan 2,7 juta km2 Zona Ekonomi Eklusif, yaitu bagian perairan internasional dimana Indonesia mempunyai hak berdaulat untuk memanfaatkan sumber daya alam termasuk yang ada di dasar laut dan dibawahnya . Letak Indonesia sangat strategis, diantara dua benua dan dua samudra, dimana paling tidak 70 % angkutan barang melalui laut dari Eropa, Timur Tengah dan Asia Selatan ke wilayah Pasifik dan sebaliknya harus melalui perairan Indonesia.

Pada satu sisi, wilayah laut yag demikian luas dengan 17.500an pulau-pulau memberikan akses pada sumber daya alam seperti ikan, terumbu karang dengan kekayaan biologis yang bernilai tinggi, wilayah wisata bahari, sumber energi terbarukan maupun minyak dan gas bumi, mineral dan juga media perhubungan antar pulau yang sangat ekonomis. Panjang pantai kurang lebih 81.000 km merupakan wilayah pesisir dengan ekosistem yang secara biologis sangat kaya dengan tingkat keanekaragaman hayati yang tinggi. Secara meteorologis, perairan nusantara juga menyimpan berbagai data meteorologi maritim yang amat vital dalam menentukan tingkat akurasi perkiraan iklim global.

Pada sisi lain, wilayah yang sedemikian luas menghadirkan tantangan-tantangan yang sangat komplek yaitu:

a. Indonesia perlu memiliki kebijakan kelautan yang jelas dan bervisi ke depan karena menyangkut geopolitik bangsa dan dengan demikian berwawasan global dan menyangkut kebijakan-kebijakan dasar tentang pengelolaan sumber daya alam disamping sumber daya ekonomi pada umumnya. Kebijakan kelautan tersebut tidak bersifat monodimensional laut, namun bersifat multi-matra yaitu mempertimbangkan pegunungan, permukaan air dari mata air di hulu sampai permukaan laut, kolam air di sungai, danau maupun laut, pesisir, dasar laut, bawah dasar laut, atmosfir, udara dan angkasa luar.

b. Mengembangkan armada pengamanan, pengontrolan dan penyelamatan laut secara maksimal. Aspek pengembangan armada pengamanan laut memiliki posisi yang sangat penting. Untuk menjaga perairan nusantara diperlukan armada pengamanan yang memadai baik menyangkut jumlah dan kualitas alutsista, teknologi dan kemampuan sumber daya manusia. Dari jaman dulu menurut Cornelis van Bynkershoek, Kedaulatan teritorial berakhir dimana kekuatan senjata berakhir. Apa yang disampaikan oleh Bynkershoek mengingatkan semua negara yang memiliki wilayah laut, maka kedaulatan suatu negara di laut sangat bergantung pada kemampuan negara tersebut dalam melakukan pengawasan secara fisik terhadap wilayah laut yang dikuasainya. Ini berarti bahwa semakin besar wilayah laut yang dikuasai oleh satu negara, semakin besar pula tanggung jawab negara tersebut untuk mengawasinya. Tidak kalah penting adalah upaya penanggulangan kecelakaan dan pencemaran air laut. Pencemaran tersebut bukan saja membuat kotor laut namun juga mengakibatkan kepunahan berbagai sumber hayati laut. Intrusi air laut juga menyebabkan semakin menurunnya kualitas air tanah yang masih menjadi sumber air bersih bagi mayoritas penduduk Indonesia .

c. Mengembangkan struktur kelembagaan dan sistem hukum pengelolaan laut secara memadai. Selama ini berbagai rencana dibidang kelautan dan kemaritiman dibuat dan dideklarasikan namun kelembagaan kelautan, pembangunan ekonomi maritim dan pembangunan sumber daya manusia tidak pernah dijadikan arus utama pembangunan nasional, yang didominasi oleh persepsi dan kepentingan daratan semata. Dewan Kelautan Nasional memang dibuat pada jaman Orde Baru tetapi dengan mandat yang terbatas dan mendukuki hirarki yang tidak signifikan dalam kelembagaan pemerintahan. Pada tahun 1999 dibentuk Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan dan Dewan Maritim Indonesia yang kemudian berubah lagi menjadi dewan Kelautan Indonesia melalui Keputusan Presiden No. 21 Tahun 2007 tentang Dewan Kelautan Indonesia, dengan ruang lingkup tugas yang lebih besar dibandingkan Dewan Kelautan Nasional.

d. Membangun visi dan kekuatan maritim yang sesuai dengan tuntutan geopolitik, dan perspesi keruangan dan perspesi keunggulan kompetitif baik yang berbasis sumber daya alam, budaya, ilmu pengetahuan maupun geografi. Visi maritim perlu diterjemahkan dalam berbagai kebijakan turunan yang mencakup kebijakan tata ruang, perkapalan, pelabuhan, transportasi, prioritas kebijakan ekonomi dan pengembangan industri maritim, pembangunan angkatan bersenjata termasuk penegakan hukum dan pertahanan, kebijakan fiskal, investasi, energi, dirgantara, pembangunan daerah dan kawasan serta tatanan kelembagaan dan pembangunan sumber daya manusia.

e. Menuntaskan seluruh hak dan kewajiban yamg tercantum dalam UNCLOS, termasuk menentukan delimitasi zona maritim (laut teritorial, zona tambahan, zona ekonomi ekslusif dan landas kontinen, perairan pedalaman, perairan kepulauan/Nusantara) dan perbatasan dengan negara-negara tetangga serta pengembangan wilayah pesisir dan perbatasan. Sebagai negara kepulauan terbesar di dunia, Indonesia mempunyai perbatasan laut dengan 10 negara, yaitu Australia, Filipina, India, Malaysia, Palau, Papua Nugini, Singapura, Thailand, Timor Leste dan Vietnam.

Sejauh ini, penetapan batas maritim Indonesia dengan negara tetangga belum sepenuhnya tuntas. Dari semua perbatasan maritim Indonesia, baru perbatasan dengan Australia dan Papua Nugini saja yang sudah selesai.

Peristiwa Ambalat mengingatkan kita kembali mengenai rawannya posisi Indonesia dalam masalah perbatasan. Sebagaimana diberitakan diberbagai media cetak dan elektronik, sejak Januari 2009, Malaysia telah sembilan kali memasuki wilayah perairan Indonesia . Dalam kaitan ini Indonesia mau tidak mau harus secara efektif menempatkan armadanya untuk melakukan patroli secara reguler di wilayah terluar Indonesia.

Bukan hal yang mudah untuk menjawab tantangan-tantangan tersebut diatas. Diperlukan sinergi dan koordinasi semua pihak untuk dapat menjaga, memanfaatkan dan mengembangkan kelautan dan kemaritiman Indonesia. Dalam hal ini politik luar negeri Indonesia yang memang diabdikan untuk mencapai kepentingan nasional perlu membantu mencapai kepentingan-kepentingan nasional dibidang maritim. Dalam kerangka tersebut, perlu dikembangkan apa yang disebut dengan diplomasi maritim, yang dapat diartikan sebagai pelaksanaan politik luar negeri dalam rangka pembangunan dan pengelolaan maritim dan laut Indonesia. Indonesia mengembangkan kerjasama maritim baik dalam kerangka bilateral, regional maupun internasional. Kerjasama maritim antar negara dalam satu kawasan memiliki fungsi yang tepat dan strategis, karena selain mencegah konflik maritim antar negara tetangga, juga sebagai jaminan keamanan terhadap lalu lintas perdagangan barang dan jasa. Salah satu hal yang mendesak terkait dengan kepentingan tersebut adalah penentuan batas wilayah laut dengan negara lain.

Langkah terbaru dalam diplomasi perbatasan Indonesia adalah pembukaan hubungan diplomatik dengan Palau pada bulan Juli 2007. Alasan pembukaan hubungan diplomatik dengan negara kepulauan tersebut adalah kenyataan bahwa Indonesia dan Palau mempunyai perbatasan maritim yang belum pernah dirundingkan. Salah satu pencapaian diplomasi perbatasan maritim Indonesia adalah penegasan kembali Filipina mengenai kedaulatn Indonesia atas Pulau Mianggas dalam Sidang Working Group on Maritime and Oceans Concerns di Manila pada awal Desember 2003.

Pada bulan Mei 2009 Indonesia juga menjadi tuan rumah World Ocean Conference yang menghasilkan komitmen bersama dalam pengelolaan sumber daya laut dan Coral Reef Traingle (CTI) Summit yang menghasilkan Regional Plan of Action dalam pengelolaan dan perlindungan yang berkelanjutan atas keanekaragaman hayati laut di kawasan Coral Triangle. Kedua sidang internasional di Manado tersebut merupakan tahap baru diplomasi maritim Indonesia. Dalam kedua pertemuan tersebut telah berhasil disepakati kerjasama terobosan penting dalam isu-isu terkait kesejahteraan rakyat, lingkungan hidup, perubahan iklim dan kerjasama kelautan.

Krisis Ekonomi Global dan Dampak Geostrategis di Asia

Krisis Ekonomi Global

dan Dampaknya terhadap Geostrategis di Asia

A. Pendahuluan

Krisis keuangan kembali melanda dunia paska krisis pangan dan energi. Krisis keuangan ini bermula dari tindakan Bank Sentral Amerika Serikat yang berusaha memulihkan ekonomi paska peristiwa serangan terorisme di World Trade Centre pada tahun 2001 dengan cara menurunkan suku bunga secara terus menerus dalam waktu yang relatif lama. Rendahnya suku bunga bank tersebut telah merangsang pertumbuhan angka kredit masyarakat termasuk di dalamnya kredit perumahan. Pada awalnya kredit berjalan dengan baik karena ditujukan kepada nasabah prima akhirnya meluas kepada nasabah-nasabah yang kurang layak. Nasabah memiliki permasalahan dengan kreditnya bisa memperoleh kredit baru. Banyak pula kredit yang diberikan dengan uang muka yang relatif rendah atau bahkan tanpa uang muka sama sekali. Ada juga kredit yang hanya mensyaratkan pada pembayaran bunga tanpa membayar cicilan pokok. Dengan naiknya harga-harga properti, bank semakin banyak memberikan kredit kepada nasabah tanpa uang muka. Tetapi karena tidak semua nasabah merupakan nasabah prima, pembayaran cicilan pun mulai seret sehingga banyak timbuk kredit macet[1].

Dalam suatu negara dengan industri keuangan yang demikian maju seperti Amerika Serikat, kredit-kredit perumahan tersebut oleh bank dikumpulkan dan disekuritisasi, yaitu proses mentransformasikan kredit kepemilikan rumah menjadi surat berharga (sekuritas), yang disebut mortgage back securities (MBS) dengan varian yang bernama collateralized debt obligation (CDO). Proses sekuritisasi surat hutang tersebut banyak dibantu oleh lembaga keuangan yang awalnya didirikan pemerintah AS untuk tujuan tersebut yaitu Fannie Mae dan Freddi Mac. Karena tugas tersebut, kedua lembaga tersebut memberikan jaminan dan memiliki stock MBS dan CDO. Sekuritas hipotek perumahan tersebut telah menyebar ke seluruh dunia[2]

Ketika terjadi masalah pembayaran cicilan MBS dan CDO, pasar memperkirakan kedua lembaga yang sahamnya sudah dicatatkan di Bursa Saham New York tersebut pasti rugi besar dan investor pun rame-rame melepas saham yang berujung pada jatuhnya harga saham. Lembaga lain yang turut terkena imbas dari masalah tersebut adalah bank-bank besar dan perusahaan asuransi. Usaha keluar dari krisis ekonomi dilakukan Presiden Obama melalui program Stimulus Fiskal sebesar kurang lebih US$800 milyar yang dikeluarkan dengan dukungan Undang-Undang The Emergency Econonmic Stabilization Act[3].

Krisis ekonomi di Amerika Serikat tersebut telah meningkatkan angka pengangguran yang mencapai 7.2 % di akhir tahun 2008 dan masih akan terus bertahan atau bertambah pada tahun 2009. Angka Kuartal I tahun 2009 memperlihatkan angka pengangguran 8.9 %. Dampak positif kebijakan stimulus keuangan diharapkan baru akan mengerem angka penggangguran. Dampak krisis yang bermula di Amerika Serikat terasa hampir ke seluruh dunia yang terlihat dari adanya inflasi secara global, meningkatnya angka pengangguran, tingginya harga minyak dan pasar perumahan yang macet. Pertumbuhan ekonomi dunia menurun dari 3.2 % pada tahun 2008 menjadi 1 % pada tahun 2009. Pertumbuhan perdagangan juga melemah dari 2.5 % pada tahun 2008 menjadi minus 5 % pada tahun 2009. Krisis juga telah melemahkan hasil-hasil pembangunan khususnya dalam kerangka Millenium Development Goal di banyak negara berkembang.

Sekjen PBB dalam sambutannya di Sesi Substantif United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 20009 memaparkan bahwa kondisi krisis ekonomi saat ini menyebabkan lambatnya proses pencapaian Millenium Development Goals (MDGs). Hal ini diindikasikan dengan adanya ancaman kelaparan akibat tingginya harga produk pangan, perubahan iklim, pandemik influenza, lambatnya proses perbaikan sanitasi dan tidak tercapainya pembangunan sesuai yang ditargetkan.

B. Langkah-langkah Penanganan Krisis

Dalam upaya mencari jalan keluar dari krisis, kelompok Negara 20 dalam pertemuan pada bulan April di London telah sepakat mengeluarkan Komunike Bersama, yang berisi komitmen dan langkah-langkah untuk menangani krisis melalui paket Stimulus senilai 1.1 trilyun dolar Amerika, rekonstruksi toxid asset sebesar US$ 1.4 trilyun dan meningkatkan permodalan lembaga Bretton Woods sebesar US$ 1.1 trilyun. Hasil pertemuan G-20 memang masih menekankan mengenai pentingnya peran IMF dalam membantu negara-negara keluar dari krisis. Memang benar, banyak kalangan melihat bahwa selama ini lembaga keuangan internasional memiliki berbagai kelemahan-kelemahan dan yang turut andil dengan terjadinya krisis global saat ini. Lemahnya transparansi khususnya dalam manajemen resiko dan lemahnya sistem pengawasan khususnya untuk transaksi-transaksi keuangan telah menyebabkan krisis. Sistem yang berlaku sekarang khususnya yang ada di IMF dan Bank Dunia juga kurang memperhatikan aspek keadilan, kesetaraan dan keterwakilan khususnya antara negara maju dan negara. Oleh karena itu salah satu Kommunike G-20 adalah juga menegaskan mengenai perlunya dilakukan reformasi sistem dan tatanan keuangan internasional termasuk reformasi lembaga Bretton Woods.

Persepsi atas kegagalan IMF dalam membantu mengatasi krisis beberapa dekade terakhir telah memberikan tantangan terhadap relevansi dan legitimasi lembaga Bretton Woods dan mendorong munculnya pandangan mengenai perlunya institusi alternatif dalam penanganan krisis pada tingkat regional dan mendorong negara-negara di kawasan untuk memperkuat kerjasama keuangan.

Tata kelola yang ada di IMF dinilai kurang dapat merefleksikan kenyataan politik dan ekonomi dengan semakin meningkatnya peran Asia di percaturan politik ekonomi di dunia. Berbagai persyaratan pinjaman dan saran yang disampaikan oleh lembaga keuangan tersebut justru kurang bisa menyelesaikan berbagai permasalahan ekonomi yang dihadapi negara berkembang yag menjalin kerjasama keuangan dengan lembaga tersebut. Negara berkembang merupakan kelompok negara yang harus menanggung akibat dari krisis yang bukan diciptakan oleh mereka, namun tidak memiliki sumberdaya untuk melakukan langkah-langkah mitigasi dalam menghadapi krisis tersebut. Hal ini telah sangat berpengaruh dalam berbagai program pembangunan nasional, pengurangan tingkat kemiskinan dan pencapaian Tujuan Pembangunan Milenium.

Reformasi tersebut tidak akan mudah dilakukan mengingat hal ini terkait dengan voting rights yang didasarkan pada besaran kontribusi negara anggota dan political will dari negara-negara maju yang nampaknya masih cukup enggan untuk memberikan ruang yang lebih besar kepada negara-negara berkembang. Pada sisi lain, upaya untuk meningkatkan suara negara berkembang juga dihadapkan pada tantangan keterbatasan keuangan untuk meningkatkan kontribusinya. Oleh karena itu, perlu dipikirkan suatu formula baru dalam penentuan voting rights yang tidak semata-mata didasarkan pada kontribusi.

Reformasi kelembagaan Bretton Woods juga belum cukup dalam menjamin terciptanya tatanan sistem keuangan internasional yang aman dan adil. Hal ini disebabkan oleh keterbatasan kapasitas IMF dan Bank Dunia dalam mempengaruhi tatatnan keuangan global. Sebagai ilustrasi aliran dana global adalah sekitar US$ 10 trilyun per hari, sementara itu kapasitas IMF sekitar US$30 milyar dan Bank Dunia US$13 milyar per tahun.

Laporan tahun 2007 yang dibuat oleh McKinsey Global Institute menggambarkan parameter lanskap finansial global yang ada sekarang dan pergeseran baru kekuatan finansial. Studi itu menggambarkan empat “pialang kekuatan” ekonomi global, yaitu investor dari negara-negara pengekspor minyak, bankir bank sentral Asia dan kekayaan asing mereka, dana lindung nilai (hedged funds) dan perusahaan ekuitas swasta. Empat pialang kekuatan ini semakin mengendalikan dan membentuk sistem finansial global dan memiliki aset yang telah berlipat ganda sampai sekitar US$10 trilyun. Diantara empat pialang besar tersebut, para produsen minyak mengendalikan saham terbesar yaitu sekitar US$4 trilyun, berbagai bank sentral Asia mengendalikan kurang lebih US$3 trilyun dan China mengendalikan setengahnya dan dana lindung nilai sekitar US$3 trilyun.

Oleh karena itu, sesuai dengan kesepakatan Pemimpin G-20 dalam pertemuannya di London, keberhasilan reformasi tatatanan keuangan internasional akan lebih banyak ditentukan oleh seberapa jauh pemerintah nasional berhasil melakukan supervisi dan pengawasan lalu lintas keuangan, penanganan aksi spekulasi dan memperkecil ketidakseimbangan dalam perdagangan dan investasi global. Kita semua juga berkepentingan agar lemabaga-lembaga keuangan internasional dapat meningkatkan kapasitasnya dalam melakukan surveillance untuk membantu negara-negara dalam mencegah krisis yang sama di masa yang akan datang.

C. Dampak Krisis terhadap Geostrategis Asia

Krisis keuangan global telah mendorong munculnya perubahan peta geopolitik dan geekonomi global khususnya di Asia. Negara-negara yang dapat keluar dari krisis secara lebih cepat dan menjadi lebih kuat dibandingkan yang lain akan memperoleh pengaruh baik secara regional maupun global yang akan mempengaruhi terjadinya pergeseran balance of power. Bagi Amerika, krisis merupakan tantangan atas kepemimpinan global yang selama ini dipegang. Defisit anggaran pemerintah AS sebesar 1,09 trilyun dollar ajkan sangat mempengaruhi anggaran belanja militer AS yang apad gilirannya akan mempengaruhi kemampuan militernya. Sebaliknya Asia justru menjadi kawasan yang paling menonjol karena kekuatan ekonomi dan politiknya[1]. Bahkan dalam bidang pertahanan, beberapa pengamat memperkirakan kemungkinan China untuk lebih memperkuat pertahanannya dan menajdi alternatif bagi kekuatan militer AS. Bagi China krisis merupakan peluang untuk semakin menancamkan pengaruh globalnya. Perkiraan Goldman Sachs, tahun 2050 China akan menjadi kekuatan ekonomi terbesar, menggeser Amerika Serikat ke urutan kedua disusul India.

Krisis juga telah semakin memperkuat kerjasama keuangan di wilayah Asia Timur. Negara anggota ASEAN Plus Three sepakat untuk memperkuat kerjasama dalam bilateral swap currency melalui pembentukan Chiang Mai Initiatives Multilateralization (CGIM) dengan meningkatkan reserve pooling dari US$ 80 milyar menjadi US$ 120 milyar untuk menambah akses likuiditas valuta asing yang lebih besar melalui pendanaan bersama. Pada pertemuan pada bulan Mei 2009 ASEAN Plus Three Finance Minister juga sepakat untuk menerapkan CMIM sebelum akhir 2009 dan membentuk Credit Guarantee and Investment Mechanism (CGIM) dengan modal awal sebesar US$500 juta dalam kerangka Asian Bond Market Initiatives.

Kawasan Asia terutama Asia Timur dengan potensi yang ada dapat melakukan ekpansi fiskal dan moneter yang signifikan. Selama masa krisis ini banyak negara di kawasan yang memiliki pertumbuhan yang relatif positif. Untuk itu, negara-negara di kawasan perlu secara koleksif melakukan identifikasi langkah-langkah bersama untuk meningkatkan permintaan domestik dan meningkatkan pemulihan ekonomi. Krisis memberikan ruang bagi negara-negara di Asia untuk memaksimalkan perannya (secara politik) dalam upaya mengatasi krisis. Krisis akan memicu meingkatnya kemiskinan, tindak kriminalitas dan angka kematian akibat kurangnya anggaran kesehatabn.

Krisis finansial sedikit banyak mengubah paradigma states dalam menghadapi kompetisi global. Gejala ini sudah nampak ketika China-Taiwan membuka hubungan dagang November tahun 2008, atau ketika Uni Eropa yang merupakan sekutu tradisional AS bersikeras menertibkan pasar modal terlebih dahulu sebelum mengucurkan dana segar ke pasar, atau ketika negara-negara nerkembang seperti Indonesia berusaha mencari alternatif green back dengan menandatangani bilateral currency swap arrangement dengan China, Korea Selatan dan Jepang. Sejumlah media terkemuka seperti the Economist terbitan Februari 2009 melalui artikelnya “the Return of Economic Nationalism” bahkan mulai membahas tentang potensi proteksionisme yangmakin menguat dan meningkatnya kembali peran negara dalam berbagai kegiatan ekonomi yang semua diserahkan kepada pasar. Oleh juga sudahj mulai melakukan refleksi mengenai batasan kapitalisme, bukan lagi kapitalisme yang liberal namun kapitalisme yang bertanggung jawab (kapitalisme sosialis).

Kawasan Asia juga perlu mengambil langkah-langkah untuk memelihara dan memperkuat reformasi pasar uang. Ekonomi Asia Timur dapat memainkan posisi leadership dalam memperjuangkan kepentingan kawasan dalam pengembangan dan pembangunan standar regulasi sistem perbankan dan reformasi pasar finansial di kawasan. Dengan cara ini, kita dapat meningkatkan kepercayaan dan posisi ekonomi Asia Timur sebagai pusat penulihan ekonomi global. Saya berkeyakinan bahwa Asia Timur memiliki potensi peran yang sangat besar dalam proses pemulihan global. Yang kita perlukan adalah kebijakan terpadu dan komprehensif dari negara-negara di kawasan dalam memproyeksikan kepentingan staregis kawasan dalam lingkungan keuangan global. Tidak kalah penting adalah upaya memperkuat forum kerjasama yang ada di kawasan untuk menjawab tantangan dan memanfaatkan peluang yang muncul dari adanya krisis global ini. Keputusan Menlu ASEAN dalam pertemuannya di Phuket beberapa waktu yang lalu yang telah menerima secara prinsipil ASEAN Human Rights Body merupakan salah satu upaya untuk memperkuat ASEAN melalui proses pembangunan politik di kawasan. Hanya dengan ASEAN yang kuat yang akan mampu membawa negara-negara di kawasan Asia Tenggara dalam mengambil peran kepemimpinan dalam percaturan politik dan ekonomi global dan regional. Saya tahu itu bukan sesuatu yang mudah mengingat peran dan kepentingan negara-negara besar yang selamanya akan selalu hadir di kawasan. Namun saya yakin bahwa penguatan kerjasama di kawasan melalui berbagai kerjasama yang konkret dan memberikan hasil yang nyata akan mampu membawa negara-negara di kawasan untuk berbicara dan didengar oleh kekuatan-kekuatan dunia lainnya.

Cukup menarik jika kita menyimak thesis Kishore Mahbubani dalam the Asian Hemisphere: the Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East, yang menyatakan bahwa abad ini akan menjelma menjadi abad kebangkitan Asia. Selama dua dekade terakhir, dinamika Asia ditandai oleh terciptanya berbagai kemajuan dibidang sosial dan ekonomi yang dibarengi dengan munculnya budaya damai terutama rentang hubungan antar negara. Realitas yang terbentang selama dua dekade ini penting untuk dicatat sebagai keberhasilan Asia menemukan jalinan antara dinamika ekonomi di satu sisi dan terwujudkan perdamaian kawasan pada sisi lain. Boleh dikata, berbagai sorotan ekonomi politik yang dilakukan Kishore Mahbubani tersebut merupakan penegasan terhadap sesuatu yang tidak terelakkan, yaitu masa senja peradapan barat.

Dalam thesis tersebut Indonesia dan ASEAN dinilai seolah tidak signifikan dalam kebangkitan Asia versi Mahbubani. Bagi Indonesia sendiri kita perlu bertanya dalam hati bagaimana Indonesia memposisikan diri secara tepat dan sekaligus terhormat ke dalam pusaran abad Asia pada beberapa dekade mendatang. Untuk itu kita secara terus-menerus harus membangun bangsa kita dan memperkuat langkah-langkah integrasi di kawasan ASEAN untuk mewujudkan Komunitas ASEAN.

D. Kebijakan Nasional dalam menangani Krisis

Bagi Indonesia sendiri krisis keuangan tetaplah memiliki dampak, meskipun tidak sebesar negara tatangga seperti Singapura dan Malaysia. Lesunya pertumbuhan ekonomi dunia khususnya di negara-negara yang selama ini menjadi pasar utama ekspor Indonesia seperti Amerika Serikat dan Jepang turut mempengaruhi tingkat permintaan barang produksi Indonesia, yang pada gilirannya akan berdampak pada pertumbuhan ekonomi dan lapangan kerja nasional. Ekonomi diproyeksikan akan tumbuh dalam tingkatan yang sedang yaitu sekitar 4 % saja untuk tahun 2009, suatu tingkat yang sebenarnya kurang kondusif untuk menampung pertumbuhan angkatan kerja.

Berkaitan dengan terjadinya krisis global tersebut, Presiden SBY telah memberikan arahan dalam menghadapi krisis keuangan global, yang dimaksudkan untuk memelihara momentum pertumbuhan ekonomi.

Arahan yang pertama adalah agar semua kalangan harus tetap optimis dan bersinergi dalam memelihara momentum pertumbuhan, tetap[ bekerjasa keras dan melakukan tindakan yang tepat, optimalisasi APBN 2009 untuk memacu pertumbuhan dan membangun sosial safety net,menggerakkan dunia usaha, menangkap peluang untuk melakukan perdagangan dan kerjasama ekonomi dengan negara sahabat, menggalakkan penggunaan produk dalam negeri sehingga pasar domestik bertambah kuat, memperkokoh sinergi dan kemitraan (partnership) dengan perbankan dan dunia usaha, meningkatkan koordinasi antar instansi terkait.

Presiden SBY juga telah menetapkan grand strategy pembangunan ekonomi ke depan, yaitu meningkatkan sumber-sumber pembiayaan dalam negeri untuk mengurangi keteragantungan arus modal dari luar, meningkatkan tabungan (saving) dalam negeri sebagai sumber investasi domestik, memperkuat pasar dalam negeri agar pertumbuhan ekonomi tidak hanya mengandalkan ekspor, yang setiap saat bisa terancam manakali ekonomi dunia mengalami depresi.

Strategi lainnya adalah berupaya meninbgkatkan daya beli masyarakat agar pasar domestik main tumbuh dengan baik, menggalakkan penggunaan produksi dalam negeri, meningkatkabn ketahanan dan kecukupan kebutuhan rakyat terutama pangan, memajukan ekomi daerah dan mengelola dan mendayagunakan sumber alam agar benar-benar dapat meningkatkabn penerimaan negara dan untuk sebesar-besarnya kemakmuran rakyat.

Langkah lain yang tidak kalah penting adalah menerapkan kebijakan countercyclical dalam bentuk stimulus fiskal untuk mencegah perlemahan ekonomi yang lebih parah, yang ditujukan untuk memelihara dan meningkatkan daya beli masyarakat untuk menjaga agar konsumsi rumah tangga tetap tumbuh, menjaga daya tahan perusahaan/sektor swasta mengahadapi krisis, menciptakan kesempatan kerja dan menyerap dampak PHK melalui kebijaka pembangunan infrastruktur padat karya.

E. Peningkatan Peran Kebijakan Luar Negeri

Bagi Indonesia krisis global seyogyanya dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai “entry point’ dalam meninjau kembali secara komprehensif politik luar negeri Indonesia ditengah-tengah dinamika hubungan internasional dewasa ini. Krisis keuangan global dan keterlibatan Forum G-20 untuk mendukung penanganan terhadap krisis merupakan berkah tersendiri bagi emerging economies seperti Indonesia karena krisis telah memaksa negara maju melakukan pengeturan secara lebih baik terhadap sektor keuangan internasional. Keputusan Financial Stability froum untuk memperluas keanggotaan dengan memasukkan Indonesia sebagai anggota baru mempunyai arti yang sangat penting karena Indonesia dalam batas-batas tertentu ikut berperan dalam merancang arsitektur keuangan global di masa yang akan datang.

Pergeseran konstelasi kekuatan di atas tentunya akan berdampak pada bagaimana persepsi politik luar negeri Indonesia dalam melihat paradigma hubungan internasional. Tanpa meninggalkan peran tradisionalnya, diharapkan polugri adapat mengakomodir berbagai peran baru Indonesia dalam hubungan internasioonal.

Indonesia berpeluang untuk turut serta berperan dalam membangun sistem dan tatanan keuangan regional dan internasional dengan mengajak negara-negara di Asia untuk mengkoordinasikan kebijakan makro ekonomi, moneter, fiskal dan penetapan kebijakan kurs devisa.

Dalam upaya mendukung langkah pemerintah dalam menangani krisis, prioritas aktivitas diplomasi Indonesia diarahkan pada upaya untuk meningkatkan, memperluas atau mencari pasar-pasar non-tradisional baru seperti rusia, negara-negara Eropa Timur, Afrika dan Amerika Latin. Hal ini penting untuk memastikan kelanjutan ekspor Indonesia sebagai salah satu sumber pertumbuhan ekonomi. Prioritas lainnya dalam bidang ekonomi adalah meningkatkan upaya untuk memperkuat kerjasama ekonomi terutama kerjasama keuangan dan pembangunan. Diplomasi Indonesia tidak terlepas dari kontek krisis multidimesi pada tingakt global dan dinamika integrasi kawasan. Indonesia perlu secara lebih aktif dan proaktif untuk menghadapi tantangan pasca krisis global yang dampaknya akan semakin besar dalam beberapa tahun mendatang. Indonesia berpeluang menarik investasi khususnya dari negara-negara yang tergabung dalam blok ekonomi GCC (gulf Cooperation Council) yang memiliki surplus likuiditas yang cukup tinggi paska kenaikan drqstis harga minyak dunia pada tahun 2008 yang lalu

Menurut Goldman Sachs potensi investasi dari negara-negara tersebut diperkirakan berkisar antara 92-125 milyar dolar Amerika per tahun. Dari jumlah tersebut sekitar 6-12 milay dolar diinvestasikan di pasar modal di Asia pasifik. Denagn jumlah yang cukup besar tersebut, Indonesia mesti berkompetisi untuk mendapatkan aliran dana petrodolar ini. Berbagai usaha telah dilakukan pemerintah dalam usaha menarik aliran dana dari teluk, diantaranya disahkannya UU no. 19/2008 tentang Surat Berharga Syariah Negara sebagai payung hukum penerbitan sukuk. Pemri juga perlu lebih aktif dalam memperbaiki citra Indonesia di kawasan tersebut.

Menyadari adanya potensi dampak serius dari krisis finansial – terutama kemungkinan melemahnya permintaan produk ekspor dari negara-negara maju, maka diplomasi Indonesia perlu diprioritaskan untuk diarahkan pada upaya meningkatkan, memperluas atau mencari pasar-pasar non tradisional baru seperti Rusia, negara-negara Eropa Timur, Afrika dan Amerika Latin. Hal ini penting untuk memastikan kelanjutan ekspor Indonesia sebagai salah satu sumber pertumbuhan ekonomi. Untuk itu aktivitas diplomasi perlu juga diarahkan untuk menerjemahkan berbagai kedekatan-kedekatan politik menjadi kemanfaatan ekonomi, khususnya memabntu tugas-tugas promosi perdaganga, investasi, pariwisata dan tenaga kerja.

Perwakilan RI juga diharapkan dapat berperan dalam membantu mengamankan pasar ekspor Indonesia. Perwakin dapat memberikan informasi berkenaan dengan kebijakan proteksi pasar domestik di setiap negara yang memiliki hubungan diplomatik dengan Indonesia. Program pemberian stimulus ekonomi tidak akan berarti jika permasalahan ekspor, pendisplinan jalur ekspor impor dan pemakaian produk dalam negeri belum mendapat penyelesiaian.

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[1] The Economist, 11-17 July 2009, p.76

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[1] David m. Smick, The World is Curved, Porfolio, Penguin Groups, 2008

[2] George Soros, The New Paradigm for Financial Market, Public Affairs, the Preseus Books Group, 2008.

[3] Berbagai produk hukum dan undang-undang dikeluarkan untuk penanganan masalah krisis tersebut, antara lain Banking (Special provision) Act 2008 untuk membantu bank, Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 untuk subsidi perumahan dan ekonomi untuk masyarakat bawah, Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 untuk kebijakan pemerintah pada waktu ada masalah darurat, Troubled Asset Relief untuk menolong pemilik aset yang menghadapi masalah, Term Asset-backed Securities Loan Facilityuntuk menolong mereka yang memerlukan fasilitas pinjaman yang jaminannya adalah sekuritas/saham.